Local antibiotic delivery systems provide targeted antimicrobial therapy achieving concentrations 10-100× MIC while minimizing systemic toxicity. PMMA bone cement (non-absorbable gold standard) exhibits biphasic elution with 80% released in 24 hours but 90-95% permanently trapped in the matrix; only heat-stable antibiotics (gentamicin, tobramycin, vancomycin) survive polymerization. Calcium sulfate (absorbable, osteoconductive) resorbs in 6-12 weeks allowing bone replacement. Hand mixing increases cement porosity and elution versus vacuum mixing. Clinical applications include gentamicin-PMMA spacers for two-stage revision arthroplasty, antibiotic beads for open fractures, and prophylactic antibiotic cement in primary TJA which reduces infection rates (Norwegian Registry evidence).

Local antibiotic delivery systems provide targeted antimicrobial therapy directly at the site of infection or contamination, achieving drug concentrations far exceeding those possible with systemic administration while minimizing systemic toxicity. These systems are fundamental to modern management of orthopaedic infections, particularly in the context of prosthetic joint infections, osteomyelitis, and open fracture contamination.

The principle relies on sustained release of antibiotics from carrier materials that can be either permanent (PMMA) or absorbable (calcium sulfate, bioabsorbable polymers). Local concentrations can reach 200-1000 times the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of susceptible organisms, providing potent antibacterial activity even in the relatively avascular environment of infected bone and soft tissue. Understanding the pharmacokinetics, carrier properties, and clinical evidence for these systems is essential for FRACS candidates.

Historical Development

• 1970s: Introduction of gentamicin-loaded PMMA bone cement by Buchholz
• 1980s: Development of antibiotic-impregnated beads for osteomyelitis
• 1990s: Calcium sulfate pellets as absorbable antibiotic carriers
• 2000s: Bioabsorbable polymer systems and commercial products
• Current era: Combination carriers and growth factor-loaded systems

Polymerization Process

PMMA bone cement undergoes exothermic polymerization reaching temperatures of 80-110°C during the liquid-powder mixing phase. This heat generation limits the antibiotics that can be incorporated, as many are denatured at temperatures greater than 60°C. The curing process creates a dense polymer matrix with antibiotics distributed throughout.

Heat-Stable Antibiotics:

• Gentamicin (most common, stable to 110°C)
• Tobramycin (stable, similar profile to gentamicin)
• Vancomycin (stable to 100°C)
• Clindamycin (moderately stable)
• Erythromycin (moderately stable)

Heat-Labile Antibiotics (NOT suitable):

• Cephalosporins (denature above 60°C)
• Penicillins (unstable)
• Fluoroquinolones (variable stability)

Elution Kinetics

PMMA exhibits a biphasic release pattern:

1. Initial burst phase (0-24 hours): Rapid release of surface antibiotics, achieving peak local concentrations
2. Sustained low-level release (days to weeks): Slow diffusion from deeper layers through microporosity

The majority (90-95%) of incorporated antibiotic remains permanently bound within the cement matrix and never elutes. This has implications for potential antibiotic resistance development and long-term biofilm formation on cement surfaces.

Factors Affecting Elution

Increased Antibiotic Release:

• Higher antibiotic loading (up to 10% by weight)
• Hand-mixed cement (more porous than vacuum-mixed)
• Addition of glycine or glucose (increases porosity)
• Smaller bead surface area to volume ratio
• Lower cement viscosity

Decreased Antibiotic Release:

• Vacuum mixing (reduces porosity)
• High-viscosity cement formulations
• Thick cement mantles
• Smooth cement surfaces

Two-Stage Revision Arthroplasty

The most established use of antibiotic-loaded PMMA is in articulating spacers for infected total joint arthroplasty:

Standard Protocol:

1. Stage 1: Implant removal, debridement, placement of antibiotic spacer
2. Interval period: 6-12 weeks of spacer in situ with systemic antibiotics
3. Stage 2: Spacer removal, reimplantation of new prosthesis

Antibiotic Loading:

• Standard: 1-2g vancomycin + 2.4-4.8g tobramycin per 40g cement
• High-dose: Up to 10% antibiotic by weight of cement
• Custom loading based on organism sensitivity

Biomechanical Considerations:

• Antibiotic loading greater than 10% significantly reduces compressive strength
• Vancomycin more than tobramycin reduces mechanical properties
• Static spacers require less structural integrity than articulating spacers

Prophylactic Antibiotic Cement

Use of low-dose gentamicin cement (0.5-1g per 40g) in primary arthroplasty remains controversial:

Arguments FOR:

• Reduced infection rates in large registry data (AOANJRR)
• Cost-effective in high-risk populations
• Minimal mechanical property compromise at low doses

Arguments AGAINST:

• Concern for antibiotic resistance
• Low absolute risk reduction in low-risk patients
• Added cost without proven benefit in cemented fixation alone

Current Recommendations (Australian context):

• Consider in high-risk patients (diabetes, immunosuppression, revision surgery)
• Norwegian and Australian registries show reduced infection with routine use
• AAOS guideline: Moderate recommendation for prophylactic use

Antibiotic Beads and Chains

Beads on surgical wire provide:

• Dead space management in osteomyelitis
• Local antibiotic delivery at fracture sites
• Temporary wound coverage with antibiotic elution

Technique:

• Standard: 4-6 beads per surgical wire
• Removal required (second procedure) at 2-4 weeks
• Can be used with negative pressure wound therapy

Calcium sulfate (medical-grade plaster of Paris) has been used in orthopaedics since the 1890s for bone defect filling. Modern formulations are specifically designed for antibiotic delivery with controlled resorption rates.

Composition and Setting

• Chemical formula: CaSO₄·½H₂O (hemihydrate) + H₂O → CaSO₄·2H₂O (dihydrate)
• Setting reaction: Exothermic but low temperature (37-42°C)
• Setting time: 5-15 minutes depending on formulation
• Cold-setting: Allows use of heat-labile antibiotics

Biological Properties

Advantages:

• Osteoconductive scaffold for bone ingrowth
• Complete resorption with replacement by host bone
• Provides calcium and sulfate ions (potential local acidosis)
• No second surgery for removal

Disadvantages:

• Rapid resorption can create transient dead space
• Wound drainage common (up to 30% of patients)
• Local acidosis may inhibit osteogenesis
• Limited mechanical strength (non-load-bearing only)

Resorption Timeline

The rapid resorption provides near-complete antibiotic elution but can create temporary void space before new bone formation. This is particularly relevant in load-bearing areas where mechanical support is required during healing.

Osteomyelitis Management

Calcium sulfate beads or pellets are placed into debrided osteomyelitis cavities:

Advantages:

• Single-stage procedure (no removal needed)
• High local antibiotic concentrations
• Osteoconductive scaffold for bone healing
• Any antibiotic can be incorporated (cold-mixed)

Technique:

• Thorough surgical debridement first
• Mix antibiotic powder directly into calcium sulfate
• Typical loading: 1-2g antibiotic per 10cc calcium sulfate
• Pack into dead space, avoid overpacking
• Consider closed suction drainage

Open Fracture Management

Use in contaminated open fractures remains controversial:

Potential Benefits:

• Local antibiotic delivery at contaminated fracture site
• Reduced infection rates in some studies
• Dead space management

Concerns:

• Wound drainage complications
• Cost
• Limited high-quality RCT evidence
• May interfere with fracture healing in some cases

Complications

Wound Drainage (most common):

• Incidence: 15-30% of cases
• Usually sterile, culture-negative
• Management: Local wound care, rarely requires reoperation
• Prevention: Avoid overpacking, consider drain placement

Local Inflammatory Reaction:

• Calcium sulfate resorption creates acidic pH
• Can cause seroma formation
• Usually self-limiting

Hypercalcemia:

• Rare, reported with very large volumes (greater than 100cc)
• Usually transient and asymptomatic
• Monitor in patients with renal impairment

Polylactic and Polyglycolic Acid (PLA/PGA)

These synthetic polymers undergo hydrolytic degradation:

Chemical Properties:

• PLLA (poly-L-lactic acid): Slow degradation (12-24 months)
• PLGA (poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid): Faster degradation (6-12 months)
• PGA (polyglycolic acid): Rapid degradation (1-3 months)
• Degradation to lactic and glycolic acid (metabolized via Krebs cycle)

Antibiotic Release Kinetics:

• Programmable release rates based on polymer composition
• Controlled degradation allows sustained therapeutic levels
• Can achieve weeks to months of antibiotic elution
• Release kinetics follow polymer degradation profile

Collagen-Based Carriers

Resorbable collagen sponges or fleece impregnated with antibiotics:

Commercial Products:

• Collatamp G (gentamicin-collagen sponge)
• Septocoll (gentamicin-collagen fleece)

Properties:

• Rapid resorption (4-12 weeks)
• Hemostatic properties
• Conformable to wound beds
• Limited mechanical strength

Chitosan and Natural Polymers

Emerging carriers from natural sources:

• Chitosan: Derived from crustacean shells, antimicrobial properties
• Hyaluronic acid: Viscosupplement carrier for antibiotics
• Fibrin glue: Carrier for antibiotics in wound beds

Current Uses

Established Applications:

• Gentamicin-collagen sponges in spine surgery (reduced wound infection)
• Sternal wound infection prophylaxis (cardiac surgery)
• High-risk orthopaedic wounds

Investigational Applications:

• Fracture fixation with antibiotic-coated implants
• Antibiotic-loaded bone graft substitutes
• Combined growth factor and antibiotic delivery

Limitations

Technical Challenges:

• Manufacturing complexity and cost
• Regulatory approval barriers (limited FDA-approved products)
• Variable release kinetics based on local environment
• Potential for local inflammatory response to degradation products

Clinical Barriers:

• High cost compared to PMMA or calcium sulfate
• Limited long-term outcome data
• Unclear advantage over established systems in most applications

Ideal Properties for Local Delivery

Essential Characteristics:

• Broad-spectrum activity against common orthopaedic pathogens
• Bactericidal (not just bacteriostatic)
• Heat-stable (if using PMMA)
• Powder formulation available
• Minimal local tissue toxicity
• Low systemic absorption (minimal toxicity)

Common Antibiotic Choices

Gentamicin (most common):

• Broad gram-negative coverage
• Good Staphylococcus activity
• Heat-stable to 110°C
• Well-studied elution profile
• Powder formulation readily available
• Minimal local tissue toxicity

Vancomycin:

• Excellent MRSA coverage
• Heat-stable to 100°C
• Often combined with gentamicin (synergistic)
• Higher cost than gentamicin
• Can reduce cement mechanical properties more than gentamicin

Tobramycin:

• Similar spectrum to gentamicin
• Slightly better Pseudomonas coverage
• Heat-stable
• Used in commercial antibiotic cement products

Other Agents:

• Clindamycin: Anaerobic coverage
• Daptomycin: MRSA, VRE (heat-labile, calcium sulfate only)
• Rifampin: Biofilm penetration (never alone, resistance)

Prophylactic Loading (Primary Arthroplasty)

Low-dose gentamicin:

• Standard: 0.5-1g per 40g cement packet
• Minimal mechanical property reduction
• Registry evidence for infection reduction
• Cost-effective in high-risk populations

Therapeutic Loading (Infected Arthroplasty)

High-dose combinations:

• Vancomycin 1-2g + Tobramycin 2.4-4.8g per 40g cement
• Can go up to 10% total antibiotic by weight
• Used in articulating spacers for two-stage revision
• Higher doses increase elution but reduce mechanical strength

Osteomyelitis Loading (Calcium Sulfate)

Concentrated local therapy:

• Typical: 1-2g antibiotic per 10cc calcium sulfate
• No mechanical property concerns (non-load-bearing use)
• Culture-specific antibiotic selection when possible
• Can use heat-labile agents (cold-mixed)

PMMA-Related

Mechanical Failure:

• Spacer fracture (5-15% with high antibiotic loading)
• Reduced compressive strength with greater than 10% loading
• More common with vancomycin than gentamicin

Antibiotic Resistance:

• Theoretical concern with prophylactic cement use
• Sub-inhibitory levels after initial burst phase
• Registry data has not shown increased resistance to date
• Biofilm formation on retained cement surfaces

Systemic Toxicity:

• Rare with standard loading
• Reported cases of acute kidney injury with high-dose spacers
• More common with renal impairment and multiple spacers

Calcium Sulfate-Related

Wound Drainage (most common):

• Incidence 15-30%
• Usually sterile, culture-negative
• Can persist for 2-4 weeks
• Rarely requires reoperation

Inflammatory Reaction:

• Local acidosis from calcium sulfate breakdown
• Seroma formation
• Usually self-limiting

Rapid Resorption:

• Can create transient dead space
• May require bone grafting later if healing inadequate

Polymer-Related

Foreign Body Reaction:

• Inflammatory response to degradation products
• Sterile seroma or abscess formation
• More common with rapid-degrading polymers (PGA)

Unpredictable Release:

• Variable kinetics based on local pH, vascularity
• Acidic degradation products may affect release rate

Absolute Contraindications

PMMA Beads/Spacers:

• Known allergy to antibiotic being loaded
• Inadequate soft tissue coverage (exposed cement)
• Severe renal impairment with high-dose aminoglycoside loading

Calcium Sulfate:

• Known hypersensitivity to calcium sulfate
• Areas requiring immediate structural support (load-bearing)
• Severe renal impairment (risk of hypercalcemia with large volumes)

Relative Contraindications

PMMA:

• Organism resistant to available heat-stable antibiotics
• Need for MRI imaging (metal beads on wire)
• Patient unable to tolerate second surgery for removal

Calcium Sulfate:

• High-risk wounds (poor soft tissue coverage, questionable healing)
• Large cavitary defects requiring structural support
• Concern for prolonged wound drainage (cosmetic areas)

Bioabsorbable Polymers:

• Cost constraints (limited insurance coverage)
• Uncertain local environment (ischemic tissue, poor vascularity)

Related Basic Science Topics:

• PMMA Bone Cement (polymerization, mechanical properties, thermal effects)
• Calcium Phosphate Cements (alternative osteoconductive carriers)
• Bioabsorbable Materials (polymer degradation kinetics, tissue response)
• Common Pathogens in Orthopaedics (organism-specific antibiotic selection)
• Osteomyelitis Pathophysiology (infection biology, antibiotic penetration)

Related Clinical Topics:

• Periprosthetic Joint Infection (two-stage revision, spacer technique)
• Pediatric Acute Osteomyelitis (dead space management, antibiotic delivery)
• Open Fracture Management (local antibiotic prophylaxis)
• Surgical Site Infection Prevention (prophylactic antibiotic strategies)

Related Surgical Topics:

• Two-Stage Revision Arthroplasty (spacer fabrication and implantation)
• Debridement Techniques for Osteomyelitis (preparation for antibiotic bead placement)

This comprehensive understanding of local antibiotic delivery systems is essential for managing orthopaedic infections and is frequently tested in FRACS examinations across multiple stations.